This article needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Jesus in Islam" –
news · newspapers · books · scholar ·
JSTOR (December 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
In Islam, Isa refers to Jesus . For other uses, see Isa (disambiguation) .
For other uses, see Isa (name) .
In Islam, ʿĪsā ibn Maryam ( Arabic:
ﻋﻴﺴﻰ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺮﻳﻢ , lit. 'Jesus, son of Mary'), or Jesus , is understood to be the penultimate prophet and messenger of
God (Allah ) and al-Masih , the Arabic term for Messiah (Christ ), sent to guide the Children of Israel with a new revelation: al-Injīl (Arabic for "the gospel"). [1][2][3] Jesus is believed to be a prophet who neither married nor had any children and is reflected as a significant figure, being found in the
Quran in 93 verses with various titles attached such as "Son of Mary " and other relational terms, mentioned directly and indirectly, over 187 times. [2][4][5][6][6][7] He is thus the most mentioned person in the Quran by reference; 25 times by the name Isa, third-person 48 times, first-person 35 times, and the rest as titles and attributes. [note 1][note 2][8][note 3][9]
The Quran (central religious text of Islam) and most hadiths (testimonial reports) mention Jesus to have been born a "pure boy" (without sin) to Mary (ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ) as the result of virginal conception, similar to the event of the
Annunciation in Christianity .[2][10][11] In Islamic theology, Jesus is believed to have performed many miracles , several being mentioned in the Quran. [12] Over the centuries, Islamic writers have referenced other miracles like casting out demons, having borrowed from some heretical pre-Islamic sources, and from canonical sources as legends about Jesus were expanded. [13] Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is also called a Muslim , as he preached that his followers should adopt the " straight path ". In
Islamic eschatology , Jesus returns in a
Second Coming to fight the Al-Masih ad-Dajjal or "False Messiah" and establish peace on earth.
In Islam, Jesus is believed to have been the precursor to Muhammad, attributing the name Ahmad to someone who would follow him. Islam
rejects the divinity of Jesus and teaches that Jesus was not God incarnate, nor the Son of God , and—according to some interpretations of the Quran—the crucifixion , death and
resurrection is not believed to have occurred, and rather that God saved him. [14] Despite the earliest Muslim traditions and exegesis quoting somewhat conflicting reports regarding a death and its length, the mainstream Muslim belief is that Jesus did not physically die, but was instead raised alive to heaven .[15][16]
Birth of Jesus
Jesus' lineage, going back to his great-grandfather
Main article: Nativity of Jesus
See also: Maryam (sura) and Islamic views of Mary
The account of Jesus begins with a prologue narrated several times in the Quran first describing the birth of his mother, Mary, and her service in the
Jerusalem temple , while under the care of the prophet and priest Zechariah , who was to be the father of John the Baptist . The birth narrative in the Quran for Jesus begins at Maryam (19) 16-34 and al-Imran (3) 45-53. [17] The birth narrative has been recounted with certain variations and detailed additions by Islamic historians over the centuries.
While Islamic theology affirms Mary as a pure vessel regarding the virgin birth of Jesus , it does not follow the concept of Immaculate Conception as related to Mary's birth in some Christian traditions. [18]
Annunciation
See also: Annunciation
Islamic exegesis affirms the virginal birth of Jesus similarly to the Gospel account and occurring in Bethlehem. [19] The narrative of the virgin birth is an announcement to Mary by the angel Gabriel while Mary is being raised in the Temple after having been pledged to God by her mother. Gabriel states she is honored over all women of all nations and has brought her glad tidings of a holy son. [20]
A hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah (d. 681), an early companion of the Prophet , quotes Muhammad explaining that both Jesus and Mary were protected from Satan's touch at birth; a quoting of Al Imran 3:36. [21]
The Annunciation in miniature
The angel declares the son is to be named Jesus, the Messiah, proclaiming he will be called a great prophet, and is the Spirit of God and
Word of God, who will receive al-Injīl (Arabic for the gospel). The angel tells Mary that Jesus will speak in infancy, and when mature, will be a companion to the most righteous. Mary, asking how she could conceive and have a child when no man had touched her, was answered by the angel that God can decree what He wills, and it shall come to pass. [22]
The conception of Jesus as described by Ibn Arabi (d. 1240), an Andalusian scholar, Sufi mystic, poet and philosopher, in the Bezels of Wisdom :
Pseudo-Arabic on the Christ Child 's blanket, Gentile da Fabriano
The narrative from the Quran continues with Mary, overcome by the pains of childbirth, being provided a stream of water under her feet from which she could drink and a palm tree which she could shake so ripe dates would fall and be enjoyed. After giving birth, Mary carries baby Jesus back to the temple and she is asked by the temple elders about the child. Having been commanded by Gabriel to a vow of silence, she points to the infant Jesus and the infant proclaims:
Jesus speaking from the cradle is one of six miracles attributed to him in the Quran. [25] The speaking infant theme is also found in the Syriac Infancy Gospel , a pre-Islamic sixth-century work. [26]
Birth narratives
According to the Quran, the pains of labor took Mary to the trunk of a palm tree.
The Islamic faith echoed some strands within Christian tradition that Mary (or Maryam) was a literal virgin when Jesus was conceived. The most detailed account of the annunciation and birth of Jesus is provided in Surah 3 ( Al Imran) and 19 ( Maryam ) of the
Quran where the story is narrated that God (Allah) sent an angel to announce that Maryam could shortly expect to bear a son, despite being a virgin. [27]
Some academics have noted that the account in Surah 19 [28] is particularly close to that in the Christian Gospel of Luke. [29] The Annunciation to Mary is mentioned twice in the Quran and in both instances Mary/ Maryam is told that she was chosen by God to deliver a son. In the first instance, the bearer of the news (who is believed by most Muslims to be the archangel Gabriel), delivered the news in (3:42-47) as he takes the form of a man (19:16-22). [30][31] The details of the conception are not discussed but when Mary asks how she can bear a son in view of her chastity she is told that God creates what he wills and that these things are easy for God. [30][32] The Quran (21:91 and 66:12) says that God blew through his angel into Mary and she, although being chaste bore Jesus without any father. [33][34]
Ibn Ishaq (d. 761 or 767), an Arab historian and hagiographer , wrote the account entitled Kitab al-Mubtada (In the Beginning), reporting that Zechariah is Mary's guardian briefly, and after being incapable of maintaining her, he entrusts her to a carpenter named George. Secluded in a church, she is joined by a young man named Joseph, and they help one another fetching water and other tasks. The account of the birth of Jesus follows the Quran's narrative, adding that the birth occurred in Bethlehem beside a palm tree with a manger. [35]
Al-Tabari (d. 923), a Persian scholar and historian, contributed to the Jesus birth narrative by mentioning envoys arriving from the king of Persia with gifts (similar to the Magi from the east ) for the Messiah; the command to a man called Joseph (not specifically Mary's husband) to take her and the child to Egypt and later return to
Nazareth . [36]
Al-Masudi (d. 956), an Arab historian and geographer , reports in his work
The Meadows of Gold Jesus being born at Bethlehem on Wednesday 24 December (a detail likely received from contemporary Christians) without mentioning the Quranic palm tree. [36]
Ali ibn al-Athir (d. 1233), an Arab or Kurdish historian and biographer , reported in The Perfection of History (al-Kamil) , a work which became a standard for later Muslims, that Joseph the carpenter had a more prominent role, but is not mentioned as a relative or husband of Mary. Al-Athir writes about how Jesus as a young boy helped to detect a thief and bringing a boy back to life which Jesus was accused of having killed. That work mentions a version of the birth narrative having taken place in Egypt without mention of a manger under the palm tree, but adds that the first version of the birth in the land of Mary's people is more accurate. Al-Athir makes a point believing Mary's pregnancy to have lasted not nine or eight months, but only a single hour. His basis is that this understanding is closer to where the Quran says Mary 'conceived him and retired with him to a distant place' (Maryam (19) 22). [37]
Childhood
Main article: Finding in the Temple
See also: Flight into Egypt and
Infancy Gospel of Thomas
The Quran does not include the tradition of the Flight into Egypt, though sūra XXIII, 50 could conceivably allude to it: “And we made the son of Maryam and his mother a sign; and we made them abide in an elevated place, full of quiet and watered with springs”. [38] However, narratives similar to the narrative found in the Gospels and non-canonical sources circulated in later Islamic tradition, with some details and elaborations being added over the centuries by Islamic writers and historians. Some narratives have Jesus and family staying in Egypt up to 12 years. [39] Many moral stories and miraculous events of Jesus' youth are mentioned in Qisas al-anbiya (Stories of the Prophets), books composed over the centuries about pre-Islamic prophets and heroes. [40]
Al-Masudi wrote that Jesus as a boy studied the Jewish religion reading from the Psalms and found "traced in characters of light" :
with Jesus then claiming:
In Egypt
See also: Infancy Gospel of Thomas
Several narratives show some disparity and similarity in Islamic writings about Jesus' early childhood, specifically his time in Egypt with regard to duration and events. Most of the narratives are found in non-canonical Christian sources like, for example, the pre-Islamic Gospel of Thomas. One such disparity is from al-Athir in his The Perfection of History which contains a birth narrative stating Jesus was born in Egypt instead of Bethlehem. [37]
Some other narratives of Jesus' childhood are popular Middle Eastern lore as highlighted by professor of interfaith studies Mahmoud M. Ayoub . [42] Many miracles are attributed to a young Jesus while in Egypt. [13] (see " Miracles " and "Other miracles " section)
Adulthood
The Jordan River, where Jesus was baptized by Yahya ibn Zakariyya (John the Baptist ). [43]
Mission
See also: Ministry of Jesus and
Apostle (Islam)
It is generally agreed that Jesus spoke
Aramaic, the common language of Judea in the first century A.D. and the region at-large. [44]
The first and earliest view of Jesus formulated in Islamic thought is that of a prophet — a human being chosen by God to present both a judgment upon humanity for worshipping idols and a challenge to turn to the one true God. From this basis, reflected upon all previous prophets through the lens of Muslim identity, Jesus is considered no more than a messenger repeating a repetitive message of the ages. Jesus is not traditionally perceived as divine, yet Muslim ideology is careful not to view Jesus as less than this, for in doing so would be sacrilegious and similar to rejecting a recognized Islamic prophet. The miracles of Jesus and the Quranic titles attributed to Jesus demonstrate the power of God rather than the divinity of Jesus — the same power behind the message of all prophets. Some Islamic traditions believe Jesus' mission was only to the people of Israel and his status as a prophet being confirmed by numerous miracles. [45][46]
A second early high image of Jesus is an end-time figure. This concept arises mostly from the Hadith. Muslim tradition constructs a narrative similarly found in Christian theology, seeing Jesus arriving at the end of time and descending upon earth to fight the Antichrist. This narrative is understood to champion the cause of Islam, with some traditions narrating Jesus pointing to the primacy of Muhammad. Most traditions state Jesus will then die a natural death. [47]
A third and distinctive image is of Jesus representing an ascetic figure — a prophet of the heart. Although the Quran refers to the ‘gospel’ of Jesus, those specific teachings of his are not mentioned in the Quran or later religious texts. They are largely absent. The Sufi tradition is where Jesus became revered, acknowledged as a spiritual teacher with a distinctive voice from other prophets, including Muhammad. Sufism tends to explore the dimensions of union with God through many approaches, including asceticism, poetry, philosophy, speculative suggestion, and mystical methods. Although Sufism to the western mind may seem to share similar origins or elements of Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, and Buddhism, the ideology is distinctly Islamic since they adhere to the words of the Quran and pursue imitation of Muhammad as the perfect man. [48]
Preaching
The Islamic concepts of Jesus' preaching is believed to have originated in Kufa, Iraq, under the
Rashidun Caliphate where the earliest writers of Muslim tradition and scholarship was formulated. The concepts of Jesus and his preaching ministry developed in Kufa was adopted from the early ascetic
Christians of Egypt who opposed official church bishopric appointments from Rome. [49]
The earliest stories, numbering about 85, are found in two major collections of ascetic literature entitled Kitab al-Zuhd wa'l Raqa'iq (The Book of the Asceticism and Tender Mercies) by Ibn al-Mubarak (d. 797), and Kitab al-Zuhd (The Book of Asceticism) by Ibn Hanbal (d. 855). These sayings fall into four basic groups: a) eschatological sayings; b) quasi-Gospel sayings; c) ascetic sayings and stories; d) sayings echoing intra-Muslim polemics. [50]
The first group of sayings expand Jesus' archetype as portrayed in the Quran. The second group of stories, although containing a Gospel core, are expanded with a "distinctly Islamic stamp" . The third group, being the largest of the four, portrays Jesus as a patron saint of Muslim asceticism. The last group builds upon the Islamic archetype and Muslim-centric definition of Jesus and his attributes, furthering esoteric ideas regarding terms such as "Spirit of God" and
"Word of God" . [51]
Miracles
Main article: Miracles of Jesus
See also: Infancy Gospel of Thomas
At least six miracles are attributed to Jesus in the Quran, with many more being added over the centuries by writers and historians. Miracles were attributed to Jesus as signs of his prophethood and his authority, according to educator and professor Ishaq Musa Al-Husayni (d. 1990), an author most known for Mudhakkirat Dajaja (Memoirs of a Hen) (Cairo: Dar al-Maarif, 1943; 2nd ed. 1967). In
Christ in the Quran and in Modern Arabic Literature (1960) , Al-Husayni said it is noteworthy Muhammad attributes no miracles to himself. [52]
These six miracles in the Quran are without detail unlike the Gospel and their non-canonical sources, which include details and mention other attributed miracles. [52] Over the centuries, these six miracle narratives have been elaborated through Hadith and poetry, with religious writings including some of the other miracles mentioned in the Gospel, non-canonical sources, and from lore. [13]
[42]
Speaking from the cradle
Speaking from the cradle is mentioned in three places in the Quran: al-Imran (3) 41, 46, al-Maida (5) 109-110 and Maryam (19) 29-30. Part of the narrative has the infant Jesus defending his mother Mary from the accusation of having given birth without a known husband. [53] Early Islam was unclear about Joseph and his role. Jesus speaks as the angel Gabriel had mentioned at the annunciation: Jesus proclaims he is a servant of God, has been given a book, is a prophet, is blessed wherever he will go, blesses the day he was born, the day he will die, and the day he is raised alive. [54]
Although this particular narrative is not found in the Bible , the theme of speaking from the cradle is found in the non-canonical pre-Islamic Syriac Infancy Gospel . That source has Jesus declaring himself the Son of God, the
Word , and affirming what the angel
Gabriel had previously announced to Mary as detailed in the Gospel. [53]
Creating birds from clay
The miracle of creating birds from clay and breathing life into them when a child is mentioned in al-Imran (3) 43, 49 and al-Maida (5) 109-110. Although this miracle is also not mentioned the canonical Gospel, the same narrative is found in at least two pre-Islamic sources: the Infancy Gospel of Thomas and the Jewish Toledot Yeshu , with few variant details between the Quran and these two sources. [55][56]
Healing the blind and the leper
See also: Healing the two blind men in Galilee and Cleansing ten lepers
Similar to the New Testament , the Quran mentions Jesus healing the blind and the lepers in al-Imran (3) 49. Muslim scholar and judge al-Baydawi (d. 1286) wrote how it was recorded that many thousands of people came to Jesus to be healed, and that Jesus healed these diseases through prayer only. [57] Medieval scholar al-Tha`labi wrote about how these two particular diseases were beyond medical help, and Jesus' miracles were meant to be witnessed by others as clear signs of his message. [55]
Power over death
Jesus is believed to have raised people from the dead, as mentioned in al-Imran (3) 49. Although no detail is given as to who was raised or the circumstance, at least three people are mentioned in detail in the Gospel (a
daughter of Jairus, a widow's son at Nain, and Lazarus ). [58]
Prescience
Jesus was able to predict , or had
foreknowledge ,[59] of what was hidden or unknown to others. One example is Jesus would answer correctly any and every question anyone asked him. Another example is Jesus knew what people had just eaten, as well as what they had stored in their homes. [13]
Table of food from heaven
Main article: Feeding the multitude
See also: Last Supper
In the fifth chapter of the Quran, al-Maida (5) 112-115, a narration mentions the disciples of Jesus requesting a table laden with food, and for it to be a special day of commemoration for them in the future. This may be a possible reference to the Eucharist according to professor of Islamic and Arabic studies W. Montgomery Watt (d. 2006). [60] According to professor of comparative religions Geoffrey Parrinder (d. 2005), it is unclear if this story parallels the Gospel's Last Supper or the feeding the multitude, but may be tied to the Arabic word ʿīd (Muslim festival): [61]
In a record by the Sunni exegete
Tabari , before the last supper, the threat death of anxious him. Therefore, Jesus invited his disciples for a last supper. After the meal, he washed their hands and performed their ablutions to wipe their hands on his clothing. Afterwards Jesus replied to them: "As for that I have done to you tonight, in that I served you the meal and washed your hands in person, let it be an example for you. Since you indeed consider me to be better than you, do not be haughty in relation to each other but rather expand yourselve for each other as I have expanded myself for you." After instructing the disciples in his teachings, Jesus foretells that one of them would deny him and another betray him. However, in accordance with Islamic denial of crucifixion, just a corpse in semblance of Jesus was caught and crucified and Jesus himself was raised to God. [62]
Other miracles
Many stories and narratives have been developed over the years about Jesus, containing certain inherent lessons or providing meaning due to the lack of detail in the Quran regarding Jesus. Some of these narratives are similar in nature to the New Testament , while some portray Jesus in a very human manner.
Besides some detail summaries of miracles of Jesus mentioned by Muslim writers over the centuries, from adulthood (like walking on water - also found in the Gospel - and causing loaves of bread to come from the ground), [53] some other miracles from childhood include: explaining the Muslim creed fundamentals to a schoolmaster, revealing who the thieves were to a wealthy chief, filling empty jars of something to drink, providing food and wine for a tyrannical king while also proving to this king his power in raising a dead man from the dead, raising a child accidentally killed, and causing the garments from a single-colored vat to come out with various colors. [13]
Healing a royal official's son
Main article: Healing the royal official's son
Al-Tabari (d. 923) reports a story of an adult Jesus' encounter with a certain king in the region and the healing of his son. The identity of the king is not mentioned while legend suggests
Philip the Tetrarch. The corresponding Bible reference is "the royal official's son." [63]
Greed and truth-telling
A legendary story of a miracle by a young Jesus, used as a hard-learned lesson popularly found in Middle Eastern lore according to professor Ayoub, has to do with a Jewish man and loafs of bread. Although carrying a polemic tone, the lesson centers on greed with truth-telling weaved into the narration. It is a story found often in children's books. [64]
Inherent wisdom
See also: Logos (Islam) and Logos (Christianity)
Another legendary miracle story is one regarding Jesus' childhood wisdom. This legend, reported through al-Tabari from ibn Ishaq, talks about Mary sending Jesus to a religious school and the teacher being astonished to find Jesus already knowing the information being taught / discussed. [13]
Food in children's homes
Another story from al-Tabari tells of a young Jesus playing with the youths of his village and telling them what food their parents were preparing for them at home. [13]
According to the details of the narrative, some parents became annoyed and forbade their children to play with Jesus, suspecting he was a magician. As a result, the parents kept their children away from Jesus and gathered their children into a single house. One day, feeling lonely, Jesus went out looking for his friends, and coming upon this house he asked the parents where their children were. The parents responded that the children were not there [lied]. After Jesus asks who, then, is in the house, the parents call Jesus a pig. Jesus then says 'let there be swine in this house' which turns all the children into swine. [65]
Scripture
Main article: Gospel in Islam
See also: Ministry of Jesus
Muslims believe that God revealed to Jesus a new scripture, al-Injīl (the Gospel), while also declaring the truth of the previous revelations: al-Tawrat (the Torah ) and al-Zabur (the Psalms ). The Quran speaks favorably of al-Injīl , which it describes as a scripture that fills the hearts of its followers with meekness and piety. Traditional Islamic exegesis claiming the biblical message to have been distorted or corrupted (tahrif ), is termed ta'yin al-mubham ("resolution of ambiguity"). [66] This polemic effort has its origins in the medieval period with Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad 's writings. [67]
Regarding the Law of Moses , the Quran indicates that Jesus never abolished
Jewish laws but rather confirmed them, while making partial abrogations only. [68]
Islam rejects Paul 's theology of justification before God by faith alone as held by some Protestants or faith through grace as held by Catholics, Orthodox and most mainline Protestants. Jesus' legal perspective did not involve a New Covenant concerning works,[ citation needed ] but to simply modify those existing laws. [ citation needed ] Shabir Ally considers this understanding to corroborate with the canonical gospels that include Matthew 5:17 . [ citation needed ]
According to Yusuf al-Qaradawi in his book The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam , the legal restrictions Jesus abrogated for Jews where those initially legislated by God as a punishment. [69] Classical commentaries such as Tafsir al-Jalalayn specify they pertained to the consumption of fish and bird meat without spikes, or in general. [70]
Disciples
The Quran states that Jesus was aided by a group of disciples who believed in His message. While not naming the disciples, the Quran does give a few instances of Jesus preaching the message to them. According to Christianity, the names of the twelve disciples were Peter , Andrew , James ,
John , Philip , Bartholomew , Thomas ,
Matthew , James , Jude , Simon and
Judas .
The Quran mentions in chapter 3, verses 52-53, that the disciples submitted to the faith of Islam: [ non-primary source needed ]
The longest narrative involving Jesus' disciples is when Jesus performs the miracle of bringing a table of food from heaven at their request, for further proof that his preaching is the true message.
Death
Main article: Islamic view of Jesus' death
Most Islamic traditions, save for a few, categorically deny that Jesus physically died, either on a cross or another manner. The contention is found within the Islamic traditions themselves, with the earliest Hadith reports quoting the companions of Muhammad stating Jesus having died, while the majority of subsequent Hadith and Tafsir argue in favor of the denial through exegesis and apologetics, becoming the popular (orthodox) view.
Professor and scholar Mahmoud M. Ayoub sums up what the Quran states despite interpretative arguments:
Some disagreement and discord can be seen beginning with Ibn Ishaq's (d. 761) report of a brief accounting of events leading up to the crucifixion, firstly stating that Jesus was replaced by someone named Sergius, while secondly reporting an account of Jesus' tomb being located at Medina and thirdly citing the places in the Quran (3:55; 4:158) that God took Jesus up to himself. [73]
An early interpretation of verse 3:55 (specifically "I will cause you to die and raise you to myself" ), Al-Tabari (d. 923) records an interpretation attributed to
Ibn 'Abbas , who used the literal "I will cause you to die" (mumayyitu-ka) in place of the metaphorical mutawaffi-ka
"Jesus died" , while Wahb ibn Munabbih, an early Jewish convert, is reported to have said "God caused Jesus, son of Mary, to die for three hours during the day, then took him up to himself." Tabari further transmits from Ibn Ishaq: "God caused Jesus to die for seven hours", [74] while at another place reported that a person called Sergius was crucified in place of Jesus. Ibn-al-Athir forwarded the report that it was
Judas , the betrayer, while also mentioning the possibility it was a man named Natlianus. [75]
Al-Masudi (d. 956) reported the death of Christ under Tiberius. [75]
Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) follows traditions which suggest that a crucifixion did occur, but not with Jesus. [76] After the event, Ibn Kathir reports the people were divided into three groups following three different narratives; The
Jacobites believing ‘God remained with us as long as He willed and then He ascended to Heaven;’ The Nestorians believing ‘The son of God was with us as long as he willed until God raised him to heaven;’ and the Muslims believing; ‘The servant and messenger of God, Jesus, remained with us as long as God willed until God raised him to Himself.’ [77]
Another report from Ibn Kathir quotes Ishaq Ibn Bishr, on authority of Idris, on authority of Wahb ibn Munabbih, that
"God caused him to die for three days, then resurrected him, then raised him." [78][79]
Quranic commentators seem to have concluded the denial of the crucifixion of Jesus by following material interpreted in Tafsir that relied upon
extra-biblical Judeo-Christian sources, venturing away from the message conveyed in the Quran, [80] with the earliest textual evidence having originated from a non-Muslim source; a misreading of the Christian writings of John of Damascus regarding the literal understandings of Docetism (exegetical doctrine describing spiritual and physical realities of Jesus as understood by men in logical terms) as opposed to their figurative explanations. [81] John of Damascus highlighted the Quran's assertion that the Jews did not crucify Jesus being very different from saying that Jesus was not crucified, explaining that it is the varied Quranic exegetes in Tafsir, and not the Quran itself, that denies the crucifixion, further stating that the message in the 4:157 verse simply affirms the historicity of the event. [82]
Ja’far ibn Mansur al-Yaman (d. 958),
Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi (d. 935), Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani (d. 971), Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi (d. 1078) and the group Ikhwan al-Safa also affirm the historicity of the Crucifixion, reporting Jesus was crucified and not substituted by another man as maintained by many other popular Quranic commentators and Tafsir.
In reference to the Quranic quote "We have surely killed Jesus the Christ, son of Mary, the apostle of God", Muslim scholar Mahmoud Ayoub asserts this boast not as the repeating of a historical lie or the perpetuating of a false report, but an example of human arrogance and folly with an attitude of contempt towards God and His messenger(s). Ayoub furthers what modern scholars of Islam interpret regarding the historical death of Jesus, the man, as man's inability to kill off God's Word and the Spirit of God, which the Quran testifies were embodied in Jesus Christ. Ayoub continues highlighting the denial of the killing of Jesus as God denying men such power to vanquish and destroy the divine Word. The words, "they did not kill him, nor did they crucify him" speaks to the profound events of ephemeral human history, exposing mankind's heart and conscience towards God's will. The claim of humanity to have this power against God is illusory. "They did not slay him...but it seemed so to them" speaks to the imaginations of mankind, not the denial of the actual event of Jesus dying physically on the cross. [83]
Islamic reformer Muhammad Rashid Rida agrees with contemporary commentators interpreting the physical killing of Christ's apostleship as a metaphorical interpretation. [84]
Substitution
It is unclear exactly where the substitutionist interpretation originated, but some scholars consider the theory originating among certain heretical Gnostic groups of the second century. [26]
Leirvik finds the Quran and Hadith to have been clearly influenced by the non-canonical ('heretical') Christianity that prevailed in the Arab peninsula and further in Abyssinia. [85]
Muslim commentators have been unable to convincingly disprove the crucifixion. Rather, the problem has been compounded by adding the conclusion of their substitutionist theories. The problem has been one of understanding. [86]
While most western scholars ,[87] Jews,[88] and Christians believe Jesus died, orthodox Muslim theology teaches he ascended to Heaven without being put on the cross and God transformed another person,
Simon of Cyrene , to appear exactly like Jesus who was crucified instead of Jesus (cf. Irenaeus ' description of the heresy of Basilides, Book I, ch. XXIV, 4.). [89]
Ascension
Main article: Islamic view of Jesus' death
Modern Islamic scholars like Sayyid
Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i interpret the ascension of Jesus as spiritual, not physical. This interpretation is in accord with
Muʿtazila and Shia metaphorical explanations regarding anthropomorphic references to God in the Quran. Although not popular with traditional Sunni interpretations of the depiction of crucifixion, there has been much speculation and discussion in the effort of logically reconciling this topic. [90]
In ascetic Shia writings, Jesus is depicted having "ascended to heaven wearing a woolen shirt, spun and sewed by Mary, his mother. As he reached the heavenly regions, he was addressed, “O Jesus, cast away from you the adornment of the world." [91]
Second coming
See also: Second Coming § Islam ,
Islamic eschatology , and Hadith of Jesus Praying Behind Mahdi
According to Islamic tradition which describes this graphically, Jesus' descent will be in the midst of wars fought by al-Mahdi (lit. "the rightly guided one"), known in Islamic eschatology as the redeemer of Islam, against al-Masih ad-Dajjal (the Antichrist " false messiah") and his followers. [92] Jesus will descend at the point of a white arcade , east of
Damascus , dressed in yellow robes—his head anointed. He will say prayer behind al-Mahdi then join him in his war against the Dajjal. Jesus, considered as a Muslim, will abide by the Islamic teachings. Eventually, Jesus will slay the Antichrist, and then everyone who is one of the People of the Book ( ahl al-kitāb , referring to Jews and Christians) will believe in him. Thus, there will be one community, that of Islam. [93][94][95]
Sahih al-Bukhari , Volume 3, Book 43:
Kitab-ul-`Ilm (Book of Knowledge), Hâdith Number 656:
After the death of al-Mahdi , Jesus will assume leadership. This is a time associated in Islamic narrative with universal peace and justice. Islamic texts also allude to the appearance of
Ya'juj and Ma'juj (known also as Gog and Magog), ancient tribes which will disperse and cause disturbance on earth. God, in response to Jesus' prayers, will kill them by sending a type of worm in the napes of their necks, and send large birds to carry and clear their corpses from the land. [92] Jesus' rule is said to be around forty years, after which he will die. Muslims will then perform the funeral prayer for him and then bury him in the city of Medina in a grave left vacant beside Muhammad, Abu Bakr , and Umar (companions of Muhammad and the first and second Sunni caliphs (Rashidun ) respectively. [98]
Islamic theology
This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Jesus in Islam" –
news · newspapers · books · scholar ·
JSTOR (December 2018) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message )
‘‘Muslims do not worship Jesus, who is known as Isa in Arabic, nor do they consider him divine, but they do believe that he was a
prophet or messenger of God and he is called the Messiah in the
Qu’ran . However, by affirming Jesus as Messiah they are attesting to his messianic message, not his mission as a heavenly Christ . [...] Islam insists that neither Jesus nor Mohammed brought a new religion. Both sought to call people back to what might be called " Abrahamic faith ." This is precisely what we find emphasized in the book of James . Like Islam, the book of James, and the teaching of Jesus in Q, emphasize doing the will of God as a demonstration of one's faith. [...] Since Muslims reject all of the Pauline affirmations about Jesus, and thus the central claims of orthodox Christianity, the gulf between Islam and Christianity on Jesus is a wide one.’’
— Professor James D. Tabor in his book The Jesus Dynasty [99]
Jesus is described by various means in the Quran. The most common reference to Jesus occurs in the form of Ibn Maryam (son of Mary), sometimes preceded with another title. Jesus is also recognized as a
nabī (prophet) and rasūl (messenger) of God. The terms `abd-Allāh (servant of God), wadjih ("worthy of esteem in this world and the next") and mubārak ("blessed", or "a source of benefit for others") are all used in reference to him. [98]
Islam sees Jesus as human, sent as the last prophet of Israel to Jews with the Gospel scripture, affirming but modifying the Mosaic Law. [100][101]
[69] Mainstream traditions have historically rejected any divine notions of Jesus being God, or begotten Son of God, or the Trinity. Popular theology teaches such beliefs constitute shirk (the "association" of partners with God) and thereby a rejection of his divine oneness (tawhid ) as the sole unpardonable sin. [102]
A widespread polemic directed to these doctrinal origins are ascribed to
Paul the Apostle , regarded by some Muslims as a heretic ,[ citation needed ] as well as an evolution across the
Greco-Roman world causing pagan influences to corrupt God's revelation. [citation needed ] The theological absence of Original Sin in Islam renders the Christian concepts of
Atonement and Redemption as redundant. [ citation needed ] Jesus simply conforms to the prophetic mission of his predecessors. [46]
Jesus is understood to have preached salvation through submission to God's will and worshipping God alone. Islam teaches Jesus will ultimately deny claiming divinity. [citation needed ] Thus, he is considered to have been a
Muslim[ citation needed ] by the religious definition of the term (i.e., one who submits to God's will), as understood in Islam regarding all other prophets that preceded him. [103]
Jesus and Mary in old Persian miniature .[ citation needed ]
A frequent title of Jesus mentioned is
al-Masīḥ , which translates to "the Messiah", as well as Christ . Although the Quran is silent on its significance,[104] scholars[ who? ] disagree with the Christian concepts of the term, and lean towards a Jewish understanding. Muslim exegetes explain the use of the word masīh in the Quran as referring to Jesus' status as the one anointed by means of blessings and honors; or as the one who helped cure the sick, by anointing the eyes of the blind, for example. [98]
Jesus also holds a description from God as both a word and a spirit. [105]
The interpretation behind Jesus as a spirit from God, is seen as his human
soul .[ citation needed ] Some Muslim scholars [who? ] occasionally see the spirit as the archangel Gabriel , but majority consider the spirit to be Jesus himself. [106]
Similitude with Adam
The Quran emphasizes the creationism of Jesus, [104] through his similitude with Adam in regards to the absence of human origin.
Islamic exegesis extrapolates a logical inconsistency behind the Christian argument of divine intervention, as such implications would have ascribed divinity to Adam who is understood only as creation. [104]
Precursor to Muhammad
Muslims believe that Jesus was a precursor to Muhammad, and that he prophesied the latter's coming. This perspective is based on a verse of the Quran wherein Jesus speaks of a messenger to appear after him named "Ahmad". [ citation needed ] Islam associates Ahmad with Muhammad, both words deriving from the h-m-d
triconsonantal root which refers to praiseworthiness. Muslims assert that evidence of Jesus' pronouncement is present in the New Testament , citing the mention of the Paraclete whose coming is foretold in the Gospel of John . [ citation needed ]
Muslim commentators claim that the original Greek word used was
periklutos, meaning famed, illustrious, or praiseworthy—rendered in Arabic as Ahmad; and that this was replaced by Christians with parakletos . [98][107] This idea is debated, asking if the traditional understanding is supported by the text of the Quran.
Islamic theology claims Jesus had foretold another prophet succeeding him according to Sura 61 :6, with the mention of the name Ahmad . (Ahmad is an Arabic name from the same
triconsonantal root Ḥ-M-D = [ ﺡ - ﻡ - ﺩ ].) In responding to Ibn Ishaq 's biography of Muhammad, the Sirat Rasul Allah, Islamic scholar Alfred Guillaume wrote:
Messianism
An alternative, more esoteric, interpretation is expounded by
Messianic Muslims [109]
[ citation needed ] in the Sufi and Isma'ili traditions so as to unite Islam,
Christianity and Judaism into a single religious continuum . [110] Other Messianic Muslims hold a similar theological view regarding Jesus, without attempting to unite the religions. [111][112][113] Making use of the New Testament's distinguishing between Jesus , Son of Man (being the physical human Jesus), and Christ , Son of God (being the Holy Spirit of God residing in the body of Jesus), the Holy Spirit , being immortal and immaterial, is not subject to crucifixion — for it can never die, nor can it be touched by the earthly nails of the crucifixion, for it is a being of pure spirit. Thus, while the spirit of Christ avoided crucifixion by ascending unto God, the body that was Jesus was sacrificed on the cross, thereby bringing the Old Testament to final fulfillment. Thus Quranic passages on the death of Jesus affirm that while the Pharisees intended to destroy the Son of God completely, they, in fact, succeeded only in killing
the Son of Man, being his nasut (material being). Meanwhile, the Son of God, being his lahut (spiritual being) remained alive and undying — because it is the Holy Spirit . [114]
Islamic literature
Muhammad leads Jesus,
Abraham , Moses and others in prayer. Medieval Persian miniature.
The Quran does not convey the specific teachings of Jesus. What has developed over the years was authored by later followers of Islam. What is found in the Quran about Jesus is that his teaching conformed to the prophetic model: a human sent by God to present both a judgement upon humanity for worshipping idols and a challenge to turn to the one true God. In the case of Jesus, Muslims believe that his mission was to the people of Israel and that his status as a prophet was confirmed by numerous miracles. [46] The Quran's description of specific events at the end of Jesus’ life have continued to be controversial between Christians and Muslims, while the classical commentaries have been interpreted differently to accommodate new information. [46] Jesus is written about by some Muslim scholars as the perfect man. [115][116][117]
Hadith
See also: Hadith and Hadith of Jesus Praying Behind Mahdi
The Hadith are reported sayings of Muhammad and people around him. The Hadith containing Jesus legend have been influenced by the non-canonical ('heretical') Christianity that prevailed in the Arab peninsula and further in Abyssinia. [85] The Hadith developed a canonical status in the third Muslim century as a source of authority for the Muslim community. The Muslim perception of Jesus emerging from the Hadith is of a miraculous, sinless, and eschatological figure, pointing people, again according to the Muslim's perspective of prophethood, to the Muslim faith (Muslim; one who submits to the will of God). [118]
Hadith have played a very important part shaping Jesus' image among common Muslims, having become further developed when incorporating Hadiths and Tafsirs weaved into great amounts of legendary writings and reports. [39] With the Muslim reshaping, the void of Jesus is surprising. What is instead written about is the ascetic magician, helped by the Holy Spirit. The Gospel is seen as a book to be preached and is only referred to in passing without mentioning actual teachings. Strikingly, the fictitious sayings and supposed teachings of Jesus are given preeminence in Hadith-collections, in Shia Islam, and in Sufi representations of Jesus. [85]
Sunnism
In Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal , al-Shahrastani (d. 1153), an influential Persian historian, historiographer, scholar, philosopher and theologian, records a portrayal of Jesus very close to the orthodox tenets while continuing the Islamic narrative:
Shiism
According to Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq , the great grandchild of Muhammad, between David and Jesus there were 400 years. The religion of Jesus was 'tawhid' (divine unity), 'ikhlas' (purity) and what Noah, Abraham and Moses had professed. The 'Injil' (Gospel) was sent down to him and the pledge that other prophets took was also taken from Jesus: to establish prayer with religion, enjoin the good and forbid the evil, allowing what is allowed and forbidding what has been forbidden. Admonitions and parables were sent down to him in the 'Injil', but there was no law of retribution in it nor precepts of retribution (ahkam al-hudud), and no obligations for inheritance. He was sent what was an alleviation of what was sent down to Moses in the Torah. (see al-Imran 50) Jesus commanded of his followers that they believe in the law of the Torah and the 'Injil'. [120]
Sufism
Early Sufis adopted the sayings of Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount and an ascetic dimension. The submission and sacrifice Jesus exemplified shows the Muslim is to be set apart from worldly compromises. In poetry and mysticism, Jesus was celebrated as a prophet close to the heart of God achieving an uncommon degree of self-denial. [121]
Although the writings developed over the centuries embellished Jesus’ miracles, the lessons of Jesus can be seen as metaphors of the inner life. These rich and diverse presentations of Jesus in Sufi traditions are the largest body of Jesus-texts in any non-Christian tradition. [122]
The miraculous birth and life of Jesus becomes a metaphor for Rumi of the spiritual rebirth that is possible within each human soul. This rebirth is not achieved without effort; one needs to practice silence, poverty, and fasting—themes that were prominent in Jesus’ life according to Islamic traditions. [123]
Ibn Arabi stated Jesus was Al-Insān al-Kāmil, the spirit and simultaneously a servant of God. Jesus is held to be "one with God" in whole coincidence of will, not as a being. Due to the spirit of God dwelling in Jesus, God spoke and acted through him. Yet Jesus is not considered to be God, but a person within God's word and spirit and a manifestation of God's attributes, like a mirror. [124][125]
Ahmadiyya
Main article: Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam
The Ahmadiyya Movement considers Jesus was a prophet and a mortal man, who was crucified and remained on the cross for six hours, until darkness fell. Jesus was taken down from the cross alive and unconscious. He was treated for three days and nights by saint physician Necdemus in a cave like tomb (especially built for
Joseph of Arimathea ). Thereafter, Jesus recuperated from his wounds, met his trusted disciples on the Mount of Olives, and left Judea towards the sea of Galilee on his way to Damascus. After his dramatic escape from crucifixion, Jesus traveled to the eastern lands in search of the ten lost tribes of Israel. Finally, he died a natural death in Kashmir, India , as opposed to having been raised up alive to Heaven. [126]
Ascetic literature
Jesus is widely venerated in Muslim
ascetic and mystic literature, such as in Muslim mystic Al-Ghazzali 's Ihya `ulum ad-Din ("The revival of the religious sciences"). These works lay stress upon Jesus' poverty, his preoccupation with worship, his detachment from worldly life and his miracles. Such depictions also include advice and sermons which are attributed to him. Later Sufic commentaries adapted material from Christian gospels which were consistent with their ascetic portrayal. Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi described Jesus as "the seal of universal holiness" due to the quality of his faith and "because he holds in his hands the keys of living breath and because he is at present in a state of deprivation and journeying". [98] [ citation needed ]
The Gospel of Barnabas, which is generally agreed to correspond with the one found in the two known manuscripts and is reported to be contained in Morisco manuscript BNM MS 9653 in Madrid, claims that Jesus predicted the advent of Muhammad. This was written about 1634 by Ibrahim al-Taybili in Tunisia .[127] While describing how the Bible predicts Muhammad, he speaks of the "Gospel of Saint Barnabas where one can find the light" ("y así mismo en Evangelio de San Bernabé, donde se hallará la luz"). The first published account of the Gospel was in 1717, when a brief reference to the Spanish text is found in De religione Mohamedica by Adriaan Reland ;[128] and then in 1718, a much more detailed description of the Italian text by the Irish deist John Toland .[129]
Appearance
Based upon several Hadith narrations of Muhammad, Jesus can be physically described thus (with any differences in Jesus’ physical description being due to Muhammad describing him when seeing him at different occasions, such as during his ascension to Heaven, or when describing Jesus during Jesus' second coming): [ citation needed ] [130]
A well-built man of medium/moderate/average height and stature with a broad chest.
Straight, lank, slightly curly, long hair that fell between his shoulders.
See also
Islam portal
Shroud of Turin
Biblical and Quranic narratives
Christianity and Islam
End time
Jesuism
Legends and the Quran
Mormonism and Islam
Peace in Islamic philosophy
Qisas Al-Anbiya
Sacrifice in Islam
Saint Mary (film)
The Messiah (Iranian film)
Notes
1. ^ Isa (25 times): 2:87, 2:136, 2:253, 3:45, 3:52, 3:55, 3:59, 3:84, 4:157, 4:163, 4:171, 5:46, 5:78, 5:110, 5:112, 5:114, 5:116, 6:85, 19:34, 33:7, 42:13, 43:63, 57:27, 61:6, 61:14.
2. ^ Son of Mary / Ibn Maryam (23 times): 2:87, 2:253, 3:45, 4:157, 4:171, 5:17, 5:46, 5:72, 5:75, 5:78, 5:110, 5:112, 5:114, 5:116, 9:31, 19:34, 23:50, 33:7, 43:57, 57:27, 61:6, 61:14; Messiah / Al Masih (11 times): 3:45, 4:171, 4:172, 5:17, 5:72(2), 5:75, 9:30, 9:31; Spirit (of God) / rwh (11 times): 2:87, 2:253, 4:171, 5:110, 12:87, 15.29, 17:85(2), 19:17, 21:91, 58:22; child / pure boy (9 times): 19:19, 19:20, 19:21, 19:29, 19:35, 19:88, 19:91, 19:92, 21:91; Word (of God) / kalima (6 times): 3:39, 3:45, 3:48, 4:171, 5:46, 5:110; Messenger / Apostle / Prophet (5 times): 3:49, 4:157, 4:171, 19:30, 61:6; Sign (4 times): 19:21, 21:91, 23:50, 43:61; The Gift (1 time): 19:19; Mercy from Us (1 time): 19:21; Servant (1 time): 19:30; Blessed (1 time): 19:31; Word of Truth ~ Statement of Truth (1 time): 19:34; amazing thing ~ thing unheard of (1 time): 19:27; Example (1 time): 43:57; Straight Path ~ Right Way (1 time): 43:61; Witness (1 time): 4:159; His Name (1 time): 3:45.
3. ^ 3rd person "He / Him / Thee" etc. (48 times): 2:87, 2:253, 3:46(2), 3:48, 3:52, 3:55(4), 4:157(3), 4.159(3), 5:110(11), 5:46(3), 5:75(2), 19:21, 19:22(2), 19:27(2), 19:29, 23:50, 43:58(2), 43:59(3), 43:63, 57:27(2), 61:6.
References
Citations
1. ^ Glassé, Cyril (2001). The new encyclopedia of Islam, with introduction by Huston Smith (Édition révisée. ed.). Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. p. 239. ISBN 9780759101906 .
2. ^ a b c McDowell, Jim, Josh; Walker, Jim (2002).
Understanding Islam and Christianity: Beliefs That Separate Us and How to Talk About Them . Euguen, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers. p. 12.
ISBN 9780736949910 .
3. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, p.158
4. ^ Schumann, Olaf H. (2002).
Jesus the Messiah in Muslim Thought . Dehli: ISPCK/HIM. p. 13. ISBN 978-8172145224 .
5. ^ Parrinder, Geoffrey (1965).
Jesus in the Quran . London: Oxford Oneworld Publications . p. 33. ISBN 9781851689996 .
6. ^ a b Khalidi, Tarif (2001). The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature . London: Harvard University Press. p. 4.
ISBN 978-0674011151 .
7. ^ Gregory A. Barker and Stephen E. Gregg, "Jesus Beyond Christianity: The Classic Texts (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 84.
8. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 16 .
9. ^ McDowell, Jim, Josh; Walker, Jim (2002). Understanding Islam and Christianity: Beliefs That Separate Us and How to Talk About Them . Euguen, Oregon: Harvest House Publishers.
ISBN 9780736949910 .
10. ^ Robinson, Neal (31 July 1991).
Christ in Islam and Christianity . New York: State University of New York Press. p. 12.
ISBN 978-0791405598 .
11. ^ Leirvik, Oddbjørn (27 May 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . New York:
Bloomsbury Academic ; 2nd edition. p. 47.
ISBN 978-1441181602 .
12. ^ Klauck, Hans-Josef Klauck (2003). The Apocryphal Gospels: An Introduction . London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark. p. 18.
ISBN 978-0567083906 .
13. ^ a b c d e f g Leirvik, Oddbjørn (2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 59–60.
ISBN 978-1-4411-8662-1 .
14. ^ Lawson, Todd (1 March 2009).
The Crucifixion and the Quran: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought . Oneworld Publications. p. 14.
ISBN 978-1851686353 .
15. ^ Zahniser, Mathias (30 October 2008). The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and Christianity (Faith Meets Faith Series) . New York: Orbis Books. p. 55.
ISBN 978-1570758072 .
16. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 61 .
17. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). "Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions" . Routledge – via Google Books.
18. ^ Cleo McNelly Kearns. (2008),
The Virgin Mary, Monotheism and Sacrifice , New York: Cambridge University Press, p. 254–5
19. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). "Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions" . Routledge – via Google Books.
20. ^ Khalidi, Tarif (2001). The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature . Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press. pp. 51–94. ISBN 978-0674004771 .
21. ^ Parrinder, Geoffrey (2013).
Jesus in the Qur'an . Oneworld Publications. p. 31.
ISBN 978-1-78074-183-3 .
22. ^ Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). "Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition" . Bloomsbury Publishing – via Google Books.
23. ^ ibn ʻArabī al-Ḥātimī aṭ-Ṭāʾī, Abū ʻAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn ʻAlī ibn Muḥammad; Austin, R. W. (1980).
Ibn al-ʻArabi . Paulist Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8091-2331-5 .
24. ^ Watt, W. Montgomery (2013).
Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-317-82043-7 .
25. ^ Zebiri, Kate (March 2000). "Contemporary Muslim Understanding of the Miracles of Jesus". The Muslim World. 90 (1–2): 71–90. doi: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.2000.tb03682.x .
26. ^ a b Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781441186621 – via Google Books.
27. ^ Sarker, Abraham, Understand My Muslim People, 2004,
ISBN 1-59498-002-0 , p. 260.
28. ^ [Quran 19:1 ]
29. ^ Jackson, Montell, Islam Revealed, 2003,
ISBN 1-59160-869-4 , p. 73.
30. ^ a b Peters, Francis Edward (2009). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians . Princeton University Press. p. 23.
ISBN 1-4008-2548-2 .
31. ^ Jestice, Phyllis G., Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia, Volume 1 , 2004,
ISBN 1-57607-355-6 , pp. 558–559
32. ^ "Surah Maryam [19:21]" .
Surah Maryam [19:21] . Retrieved
2018-04-26.
33. ^ "Surah Al-Anbya [21:91]" .
Surah Al-Anbya [21:91] . Retrieved
2018-04-26.
34. ^ "Surah At-Tahrim [66:12]" .
Surah At-Tahrim [66:12] . Retrieved 2018-04-26.
35. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (1991). Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions . London and New York: Routledge. p. 39.
ISBN 978-0415054102 .
36. ^ a b Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
37. ^ a b Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
38. ^ A.J. Wensinck and Penelope C. Johnstone, “Maryam”, in
Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition , ed. by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 30 September 2018.
doi: 10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0692 ,
ISBN 9789004161214 .
39. ^ a b Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781441186621 – via Google Books.
40. ^ Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781441186621 – via Google Books.
41. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
42. ^ a b Ayoub, Mahmoud (14 May 1992). The Qur'an and Its Interpreters, Volume II: The House of 'Imran . SUNY Press.
ISBN 9780791409947 – via Google Books.
43. ^ Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781441186621 – via Google Books.
44. ^ Allen C. Myers, ed. (1987). "Aramaic". The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. p. 72.
ISBN 978-0-8028-2402-8 . "It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Palestine in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73)"
45. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 83.
46. ^ a b c d Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 90.
47. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 84.
48. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 85.
49. ^ Khalidi, Tarif (31 May 2001).
The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 31–36.
ISBN 978-0674004771 .
50. ^ Khalidi 2001, p. 31 .
51. ^ Khalidi 2001, p. 32-36 .
52. ^ a b Parrinder 1965, p. 83.
53. ^ a b c Parrinder 1965, p. 78.
54. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 75-76.
55. ^ a b Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). "Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition" . Bloomsbury Publishing – via Google Books.
56. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 83-84.
57. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 85.
58. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 86.
59. ^ Fudge, Bruce (7 April 2011).
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Al-Tabrisi and the Craft of Commentary (Routledge Studies in the Qur'an) . United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 60.
ISBN 978-0415782005 .
60. ^ a b Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). "Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions" . Routledge – via Google Books.
61. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 87.
62. ^ Neal Robinson Christ in Islam and Christianity SUNY Press 1991
ISBN 978-0-791-40558-1 p 129
63. ^ Ayoub, Mahmoud (14 May 1992). "The Qur'an and Its Interpreters, Volume II: The House of 'Imran" . SUNY Press – via Google Books.
64. ^ Ayoub, Mahmoud (14 May 1992). "The Qur'an and Its Interpreters, Volume II: The House of 'Imran" . SUNY Press – via Google Books.
65. ^ Ayoub, Mahmoud (14 May 1992). The Qur'an and Its Interpreters, Volume II: The House of 'Imran . New York: State University of New York Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0791409947 .
66. ^ Reynolds, Gabriel Said (2010).
"On the Qur'anic Accusation of Scriptural Falsification (tahrîf) and Christian Anti-Jewish Polemic" (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society . 130 (2): 192. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
67. ^ "Reynolds 2010, p. 190" (PDF).
68. ^ Phipps, William (May 28, 2018) [2016]. "5 Scriptures" .
Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and Their Teachings . Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 101.
ISBN 978-1-4742-8934-4 .
69. ^ a b Al-Qaradawi , Yusuf (January 30, 2018) [January 30, 1999].
"INTRODUCTION" . The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam (Al-Halal Wal Haram Fil Islam) . American Trust Publications. p. 5.
70. ^ "ﺗﻔﺴﻴﺮ Tafsir al-Jalalayn" .
altafsir . Retrieved January 31, 2018.
71. ^ Quran 3:52–53
72. ^ Ayoub, Mahmoud M. (April 1980). "Towards an Islamic Christology II: The Death of Jesus, Reality or Delusion (A Study of the Death of Jesus in Tafsir Literature)". The Muslim World. 70 (2): 91–121.
doi: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.1980.tb03405.x .
73. ^ a b Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
74. ^ Zahniser 2008, page 56
75. ^ a b Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
76. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 119.
77. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 121.
78. ^ Robinson 1991, p. 122 .
79. ^ Ayoub 1980, p. 108. [Muhammad b. 'Ali b. Muhammad al-Shawkani, Fath al-Qadir al-Jami bayn Fannay al-Riwaya wa 'l Diraya min 'Ilm al-Tqfsir (Cairo: Mustafa al-Babi al-Halabi, n.d.), I, 346, citing Ibn Asakir, who reports on the authority of Ibn Munabbih.]
80. ^ Lawson 2009, page 12
81. ^ Lawson 2009, page 7 .
82. ^ Lawson 2009, page 12 .
83. ^ Ayoub 1980, p. 117.
84. ^ Ayoub 1980, p. 113.
85. ^ a b c Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing.
ISBN 9781441186621 – via Google Books.
86. ^ Ayoub 1980, p. 116.
87. ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145.
ISBN 0-06-061662-8 . "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact."
88. ^ Schäfer, Peter (13 September 2009). Jesus in the Talmud . Princeton University Press. p. 139. ISBN 978-0691143187 .
89. ^ Roberts, Alexander (1 May 2007). The Ante-Nicene Fathers: The Writings of the Fathers Down to A.D. 325 Volume I - The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus . New York: Cosimo Classics. p. 349.
ISBN 978-1602064690 .
90. ^ Ayoub 1980, p. 100.
91. ^ Ayoub 1980, p. 103.
92. ^ a b Sonn (2004) p. 209
93. ^ Sahih Muslim, 41:7023
94. ^ Sahih Muslim (in Arabic). p. 193, part2.
95. ^ Ahmad Gunny 2015.
96. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari , 3:43:656
97. ^ Craig A. Evans & Jeremiah J. Johnston 2015 .
98. ^ a b c d e Anawati, G.C. (6 June 2016) [2012]. "Īsā" . In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill Online.
ISBN 9789004161214 . Retrieved
6 June 2016.
99. ^ Tabor, James (August 28, 2017) [1st pub. 2006]. "Conclusion: RECOVERING LOST TREASURES" . The Jesus Dynasty: The Hidden History of Jesus, His Royal Family, and the Birth of Christianity. Simon & Schuster . pp. 315–316.
ISBN 978-0-7432-8723-4 .
100. ^ Sakura, Muham (November 11, 2017) [December 2015].
"Preface" . The Great Tale of Prophet Adam & Prophet Jesus In Islam . United Submitters International . p. 6.
101. ^ Akhtar, Shabbir (October 24, 2017) [October 2007]. "PART 1 Quranic Islam and the secular mind" . The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam . Routledge . p. 31.
ISBN 978-0-203-93531-6 .
102. ^ See:
Esposito (2002) p. 32, 74;
Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241
Markham and Ruparell (2001) p. 348
103. ^ Khalidi 2001 p. 75 ; *Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241
104. ^ a b c Akhtar, Shabbir (31 October 2007). The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam . Routledge.
ISBN 9781134072569 – via Google Books.
105. ^ https://quran.com/4/171
106. ^ Mufti Shafi Uthmani, Maariful Quran, Q. 19:16-21, Volume 6, p. 34.
107. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
108. ^ Liddell and Scott`s celebrated Greek-English Lexicon gives this definition for periklutos: "heard of all round, famous, renowned, Latin inclytus: of things, excellent, noble, glorious". Rev. James M. Whiton, ed. A Lexicon abridged from Liddell and Scott`s Greek-English Lexicon. New York: American Book Company, N.D. c.1940s, p.549. Periklutos occurs in The Iliad and The Odyssey, and Hesiod`s Theogony.
109. ^ Travis, John (2000). "Messian Muslim Followers of Isa" (PDF).
International Journal of Frontier Missions . 17 (Spring): 54.
110. ^ Cumming, Joseph. "Muslim Followers of Jesus?" . ChristianityToday. Retrieved 20 November 2009.
111. ^ "Touchstone Archives: Can Jesus Save Islam?" . Retrieved
17 October 2016.
112. ^ Author, Carl Medearis; Not-Evangelism, 'Speaking of Jesus: The Art of (9 January 2013).
"Muslims Who Follow Jesus" . Retrieved 17 October 2016.
113. ^ "Why Evangelicals Should Be Thankful for Muslim Insiders" . Retrieved 17 October 2016.
114. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Jesus article. cf. L. Massignon, Le Christ dans les Évangiles selon Ghazali , in REI, 1932, 523-36, who cites texts of the Rasa'il Ikhwan al-Safa , a passage of Abu Hatim al-Razi (about 934), and another of the Isma'ili da'i Mu'ayyad fid-din al-Shirazi (1077).
115. ^ Little, John T. (3 April 2007). "Al-Insan Al-Kamil: The Perfect Man According to Ibn Al-Arabi".
The Muslim World. 77 (1): 43–54.
doi: 10.1111/j.1478-1913.1987.tb02785.x .
"Ibn al-'Arabi uses no less than 22 different terms to describe the various aspects under which this single Logos may be viewed."
116. ^ Schumann, Olaf H. (2002).
Jesus the Messiah in Muslim Thought . Dehli: ISPCK/HIM. p. 13. ISBN 978-8172145224 .
117. ^ Parrinder 1965, p. 6 .
118. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 97.
119. ^ Watt, William Montgomery (19 December 2013). Muslim-Christian Encounters (Routledge Revivals): Perceptions and Misperceptions . Routledge.
ISBN 9781317820437 – via Google Books.
120. ^ Qaim, Mahdi Muntazir (2007).
Jesus Through the Qur'an and Shi'ite Narrations (Bilingual ed.). Queens, New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an. pp. 36–37.
ISBN 978-1879402140 .
121. ^ name="Gregg, Stephen 2010, p. 85"
122. ^ a b Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 86.
123. ^ Gregg, Stephen; Barker, Gregory 2010, p. 112.
124. ^ Leirvik, Oddbjørn (25 March 2010). Images of Jesus Christ in Islam: 2nd Edition . Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781441186621 – via Google Books.
125. ^ Clinton Bennett Understanding Christian-Muslim Relations: Past and Present A&C Black 2008
ISBN 978-0-826-48782-7 page 155
126. ^ "Death of Jesus - WikiAhmadiyya, Islam & Ahmadiyya encyclopedia free online" .
www.wikiahmadiyya.org .
127. ^ Wiegers, G.A. (April–June 1995). "Muhammad as the Messiah: A comparison of the polemical works of Juan Alonso with the Gospel of Barnabas".
Biblitheca Orientalis. LII (3/4): 274.
128. ^ Fremaux, Michel; Cirillo, Luigi (1999). Évangile de Barnabé 2nd Edn revised . Beauchesne. p. 14.
ISBN 9782701013893 .
129. ^ Ragg, L & L (1907). The Gospel of Barnabas. Oxford. lxv–lxxi.
ISBN 978-1-881316-15-2 .
130. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari , 4:54:462 ,
4:55:607–608 , 4:55:647–650 ,
4:55:649–650 , Sahih Muslim,
1:316 , 1:321 , 1:325 ,
1:328 , 41:7023
